A Personalised Induction Will Always Be More Effective Essay Example for Free

A Personalised Induction Will Always Be More Effective Essay Every successful hypnotherapy session must have an induction ensuring that the client is relaxed and is in a disassociated state in order fully experience the process. The type of induction used can be dependent on the personal preferences of the therapist or the type of hypnotherapy being undertaken in the session. There has been some debate as to whether a generic induction will be suitable for all clients or as some hypnotherapists advocate that only a personalised screed to each client will do. Commercial hypnotherapy which is produced for the mass market is widely available in CD, book or e formats. These materials deal with common issues such as giving up smoking, weight loss etc and by their very nature have to be generic as there is no option for personalisation. However as there is no therapist present at these sessions, the success of commercial non personalised screeds cannot be assessed. In my opinion, commercial materials can reach many people but they are more about making money for the person producing them than about making a difference for the individual. It is also impossible to have a personalised induction if the therapist is holding a group session. In hypnosis the therapist relies on verbal communication rather than on body language. Psychology professor Albert Mehrabian studied communication and stated that how humans communicate can be broken down into quantities; ie words account for 7%, tone of voice accounts for 38%, and body language accounts for 55%. Therefore the vocabulary the therapist uses becomes vitally important to how successful the therapy will be for the client. Therapists who prefer a personalised approach believe that preparation of the client is essential especially if they have no previous experience of hypnotherapy and/or have pre-conceived ideas. Discussion before the session is crucial to discover what the client’s expectations are and when necessary, allay fears and correct their beliefs. During this discussion the therapist can also probe to discover the clients’ preferred or dominant modality. Modalities were defined by Bandler and Grinder the â€Å"Language of our minds†. (Chrysalis, Module 2). The three major modalities are, Kinaesthetic (feeling), Visual (sight), Auditory (hearing) as well as the two minor modalities of Olfactory (smell) and Gustatory (taste). As individuals we all have a preference for the way we perceive and process our experiences and in order to create a personalised induction, the therapist will try to ascertain the client’s preference during the initial interview and discussion. During the induction, the client may have his eyes closed or the therapist may not be within sight, so communication with the client using their preferred imagery will help them feel more comfortable. Kinaesthetic people have a preference for vocabulary which will invite them to feel. For example in an induction where the client is in their special place outdoors, you could suggest the client feels the warmth of a breeze as it moves through the trees. Whereas for those with a visual modality it could be suggested that they imagine leaves moving in the warm breeze in the nearby trees, while those with an auditory modality may feel more comfortable if it is suggested that they can hear the rustle of the leaves when they are moved by the warm breeze. Language and imagery can also have a negative effect on the client, Karle and Boys (1987, p45) suggest that imagery is first planned with the client to ensure it is acceptable and congenial. The example they use is suggesting descent by means of using a lift to a client who is phobic of lifts. Therefore it is important to have some personalisation in the induction. There is, however, a risk of mis-judging an individual during the initial interview and consultation that the therapist must be aware of. The client may present an image that they think the therapist wants to see; also as humans our feelings can change frequently throughout the day which causes us to react differently. And until the therapist gains a deeper understanding of the client a truly personalised induction may not be achieved yet the client has successfully reached a deeper hypnotic state. When creating an induction it is suggested by Karle and Boys (1987) that therapists use a technique known as â€Å"Compounding† which employs all modalities in the sensory descriptions and suggestions. While the content of the inductionis one area which can be personalised, the delivery of the induction is also a major influence on how accepting and comfortable the client will be. During the initial interview and as the relationship between client and therapist grows, the style of induction most suited to the client should be employed. They are referred to today as â€Å"Permissive† and â€Å"Authoritarian†. However as with the modalities, the style preference of the therapist will be a major influence on the style employed in the induction. Sandor Ferenczi, a Hungarian psychoanalyst who practised in the early 1900s first investigated these styles after moving away from Freudian theory and developing relaxation therapy. He called them ‘maternal’ and ‘paternal’ and used them in his induction delivery. He considered the maternal style to be nurturing, caring, supportive and permissive while he considered paternal to be direct, authoritarian and aggressive. (Chrysalis, Module 2). Dave Elman, a stage hypnotist and entertainer working in 1948, at the invitation of doctors began to work on induction techniques. He continued in this career writing books on the subject and teaching students up to his death in 1968. He is well known for using his preferred authoritarian style of induction which he adapted from the sharp commands used in stage shows. Conversely, Milton Erickson, born 1901, utilised the permissive style of induction together with indirect suggestion. He believed that ‘people must participate in their therapy’ and was skilled at using metaphors to assist his therapy. Erickson believed that it was not possible consciously to instruct the unconscious mind, and that authoritarian suggestions were likely to be met with resistance. He firmly stated that the unconscious mind responds to openings, opportunities, metaphors and symbolic language. He advocated that effective hypnotic suggestion should be artfully vague, leaving space for the client to fill in the gaps with their own unconscious understandings even if they do not consciously grasp what is happening. The skilled hypnotherapist constructs these gaps of meaning in a way most suited to the individual subject in a way which is most likely to produce the desired change (Wikipedia. rg) Authoritarian inductions will be more directional and commanding; they allow the hypnotherapist to be in charge with the client following a set of demands. This can work well on some clients who respond to authority and like set boundaries. An authoritarian induction will be straightforward with no embellishments, for example making commanding statements such as, ‘Close your eyes, you are in control at all times’, ‘You are now feeling relaxed’. Clients who prefer authoritarian styles may have a logical preference; it has also been shown to work well for those individuals who are sceptical. While this approach may seem to be domineering, it only creates an illusion that the therapist is in total control. In fact the client has to be willing to participate and therefore is actually fully in control and can stop the therapy at anytime. Once the client has relaxed into a trancelike state, suggestions and choices can then be introduced. Permissive inductions are gentler where the therapist is the facilitator, allowing the client to make their own choices while in a safe reassuring environment reinforcing the therapist’s initial discussion with the client. Sentences used will be suggestive, for example, ‘You may like to close your eyes now’ or, ‘In your own time choose when to relax the muscles in your arms. ’ This style allows use of imaginative scenarios and metaphors. Clients who will respond to the permissive style are considered to be generally caring, like to please and are imaginative and have strong imagery skills. Direct and indirect suggestion can also be employed in the induction. Indirect suggestion can be beneficial with clients new to hypnotherapy that are resistant either through anxiety or negativity and when the authoritarian approach would not be appropriate. Milton Erikson preferred indirect methods (Chrysalis, Module 2) because he believed that the client should actively participate in their therapy. Erickson created a number of techniques known as ‘techniques of utilisation’ that could be used on people who seem resistant to hypnosis, whether they were resisting through anxiety or stubbornness. † Erickson’s techniques were very manipulative but very subtle, and allowed the individual client to take control of their own healing. He believed that if one technique does not work you must find one that does work. He believed in encouraging the resistance that the individual was exhibiting so that they would feel more comfortable responding within their own boundaries rather than those set by the therapist. In a typical example, a girl that bit her nails was told that she was cheating herself of really enjoying the nail biting. He encouraged her to let some of her nails grow a little longer before biting them, so that she really could derive the fullest pleasure from the activity. She decided to grow all of her nails long enough that she might really enjoy biting them, and then, after some days, she realised that she didnt want to bite them anyway. Indirect suggestion also opens the opportunity to use metaphor and imagery. This is particularly effective with children where storytelling and fantasy is something they can readily associate with. Karl and Boys (1987, p150) state that it is vital that each step should be adapted to suit the age, cultural background, developmental stage and intellectual and educational status of the child. Thus indicating that a personalised induction for children is imperative to achieve success and limit any negative effects. Direct suggestion as with the Authoritarian style will be more effective with clients who prefer this approach; however compounding the two styles as with the modalities will be effective as it ensures you are connecting with the client via their preferred style. Other styles of induction that can be employed is the â€Å"confusion technique†. This is used on individuals who may be very rigid and analytical. They are prone to criticise and would want to pick everything apart instead of relaxing into the hypnosis. By giving a confused message which contains little to understand, the client’s brain will be forced to shut down and go into a trancelike state. In this method there can be no personalisation for the client to focus on. In conclusion I think that in order to build a genuine rapport with the client, the therapist should always aim to personalise the induction, in relation to the reasons the client is seeking hypnotherapy. It is imperative to always carry out an in depth discussion to assess the client’s needs and to identify if there are any underlying factors which may prevent the therapist from treating the client. e psychosis. Also a client’s likes dislikes and phobias must be taken into account, therefore it is important to listen carefully to the client and be respectful of their needs. However it must also be accepted that an individual’s preferences and modalities are not fixed precisely because we are individuals whose reactions can change regularly throughout the day; therefore it would be preferable to compound all modalities and styles into the induction. It is also important to remember that the therapists’ preferences will also have an influence on how the induction is carried out and on the relationship with each individual client. Therefore I conclude that all inductions on a one to one basis are personalised inductions based on what the therapist has learned about the client and by learning what works best for that client.

Continuities and Chnages of Labor Systems in Africa Essay Example for Free

Continuities and Chnages of Labor Systems in Africa Essay Many attempts have been made around the world at reforming current legal systems in search of a better one. As the amount of crime rises worldwide, people are constantly on the lookout for new and improved ways to fight it, and prevent it. Three such attempts involving attempts to change legal systems have been discussed the last half of this course. The change from the system put in place when a country was under colonization, as in Kilamanjaro, and Papa New Guinea. An attempt to revert to the historically cultural ways of dealing with conflict, as in China and India. In addition, an attempt by the more modern industrialized societies to become more attuned to the people with whom they are trying to help, as in Japan, and Santa Anna. By studying these examples and implementing one of them, almost any kind of stagnant legal system can attempt to change for the better. Many countries were colonized throughout the history of the world, by more dominant countries. These colonizing countries often only wanted the newly acquired country for the land, resources, or the labor they could offer. Often these colonizers brought into the new country their style of government and law, neglecting the native people. Many times, this new system caused many of the problems in the colonized country. Two examples of a country being colonized and the subsequent changes that occurred once the colonizers left are in Kilamanjaro and in Papa New Guinea. Kilamanjaro was colonized first by the Germans in the mid 1880s, and then by the British during WWI, and finally gained independence in 1961 (Tanzania). Each country brought with it their own system of government and law, and attempted to impose these on the people of Kilamanjaro. To the native people, land is extremely important, and often the cause of many conflicts. There are two different types of farmland on the mountain, a high one and a low one, and coffee is the dominant cash crop. Since there isnt enough prime farming land for everybody, a system of patriarchal lineage developed where the male would give his existing compound to his oldest son, and move somewhere else inviting his youngest so to live with him, and have the farm upon his death. If there was a middle son, he was forced to operate independently. As the population continues to grow rapidly, inevitably, stress has begun to compound this system; there just isnt enough land for all the people. This led to many conflicts arising over who actually owns land, since it was essential to the survival of the people. Historically the chief was the most important people in Kilamanjaro, as he is responsible for several districts over an area. Chiefs controlled the long distance profitable trade, received half of the cattle fro the wars, could at any time call on his people to help do anything such as build a fence, and sometimes even received an extra child from his people to use as another worker. These chiefs were often fair people, they believed in not squeezing the poor but taxing the rich. They wanted to help the poor, and create a mutuality situation between them and the rich. When it came to conflict resolution chiefs were able to settle disputes, but often didnt, as many people tried to keep the dispute with in their own family or lineage. They went to the elders instead and sought their advice. A case would go to the chiefs only if deemed necessary by the elders. Under the German period of occupation, this system was altered. They insisted on recognizing the customary law and ruling through the chiefs. However they didnt really let the chiefs have any power. The Germans took over the long distance trade, wiped out warfare, and stripped from the chiefs their whole base of their power. The chiefs whole basis of power under this system was the fact the Germans recognized them as powerful. Things changed however under the British system. The British saw themselves as more advanced, and thus wanted to civilize the Africans, and help them to create a better system. What they created was a system of duality, where they used traditional law for minor infractions, and British law for the serious crimes. This again takes the power out of the traditional cultural ways of solving disputes, and places it in the colonizers. The Germans took over economically, and the British, while still taking over economically they changed the whole cultural system as well. The British sought to understand the true customary laws of the Africans, and to write them down as a means of reference for settling disputes, a practice which for centuries was never done, yet the locals always managed to solve disputes. They implemented a system of modern British laws, including imposing a statute of limitations on cases. This contradicted with the customary way the Africans dealt with things in the law. The British also wanted to systemize the law, emphasize the rule of the law, and impose their own decisions on local problems. The British also formed a duel court system, one for whites and another for Africans, as an attempt at allowing the locals to retain some form of their historical past. Overall, the British system was naive and morally based, not the way the Africans traditionally operated. Their system, of viewing everything as static and unchanging was too radical for the indigenous people to comprehend. Their whole existence has been based on the cultural laws of their people, and the implementation of those laws as elders, or chiefs saw fit. The local laws were multidimensional and could be seen in different context by the natives at different times, with the British wanting to write everything down and operate from this system of written law, the system changed and the ability of the customary law to change with the times change to. Another example of a colonizing situation was in New Guinea, where it was recently colonized by Europeans. As was the case with the Africans, New Guinea was a farming community, and thus, viewed land as an important commodity. They have a traditional system of Big Man government, no chiefs just several big men who represent the power and authority in the area. They emphasized self-help, and negotiation in their resolving conflicts, but also used the threat of fighting, and the actual fights themselves as a means of resolution. New Guinea differs from Africa in that the Europeans attempted to be less intrusive into their way of life. They patrolled the areas where the people lived, erasing the system of contacts that had been developed among the people. They tried not to be heavy handed but at the same time ruined the connections made between the people that was essential for their resolving disputes. Warfare was looked down upon, and thus the traditional way of resolving disputes was radically erased from the land. Even though the Europeans were trying to be fair and let the traditional system work, they didnt understand it. They didnt realize that these conflicts and connections were crucial to the traditional system and was needed for it to be able to operate. These two examples show the problems that colonizers have with trying to impose modernization on a society as remote and backwards as these. They have existed for centuries by their own terms, why should they change now. Legal systems change for reasons other than a dominating colonizing power forcing them to. In China for example, there has long been a history of mediation as a means of settling disputes. This history of mediation was based on the Confucianism, an ideology that emphasizes harmony and respect for one another, along with a hierarchy in all the cosmos, meaning that it emphasized people respecting and getting along with one another, even when settling disputes. It also emphasized that certain people were indeed higher in stature than others were. Mediation under this system placed a strong emphasis on the ritual, and ceremony of settling disputes. Each party in the process has a particular role, and each party is expected to perform in that role. This concept was based on the Li, or the philosophical principle that called for respect and social form. This type of mediation allowed people to save face, and not to publicly admit to wrongdoing. Once the conflict was settled, the issues surrounding the original debate were never discussed again and the partys left happy with the sense of community restored. This traditional system worked well to preserve the community of the in the traditional sense of the Chinese culture. When communism came into power this system of mediation was preserved, however, slightly altered. It became known as comrades court, which involved many people with anyone having the ability to mediate. This was a very tight association between social mediation and political ideology. It was an extreme form of exclusive mediation, as Greenhouse would have categorized it. It consisted of the political ideology being very influential, and no longer just trying to deal with the interests of the parties involved. Its goal was to educate the population in the beliefs of the government, and resolve the conflicts as quickly and efficiently as possible. Like the old system the face to face part of the process was still in use, however, one didnt know who would end up getting involved in the mediation process, and often the people feared that the government would get involved and punish them severely, possibly even by death. For this reason many people were afraid of the system and opted not to use it as readily as they had the traditional. With the opening up of China to outside influences, the system has lightly changed as well, although it is nowhere near, where it was before communism. It is still used as the first means of resolving conflicts, however, the vast majority of these cases are being dealt with on the localized level, causing many to feel more at ease with the situation. These local mediation communities are still under heavy control of the communist party, as the judges are often placed there by the party itself. Disputes since the rise of communism have been classified into two categories, those involving ordinary citizens, and those involving crimes against the state. It is where the crime is directed against the state that the process of mediation is pretty much thrown out and the accused is severely punished, prompting the fear of the public. Within both systems, mediation plays a major role, as does the bias against the use of law as a means of resolving disputes. This has led to the widespread acceptance of the mediation system under communist regime even though it differs from the traditional form of mediation. A major difference between the two systems is the way they each look at the conflict itself. In the traditional early period, conflict was seen as unavoidable, and they worked to ensure there wouldnt be future conflicts. In the communist period, they tend to see conflict as important and productive and dont attempt to appease all the parties involved in a dispute upon settling it. The major difference however, as it is in most other aspects of Chinese life, is the involvement of the state. In traditional times the state was never involved, maybe occasionally, nowadays the state plays a major role, often squashing any of the traditional characteristics of the system. The state wants its influence to be recognized, its voice to be heard, where as in the past it used to be the voice of the people that was most important, and led to the resolutions lasting and everyone being satisfied by them. The process now, while it may be inexpensive and not involving the courts, is very intrusive into peoples lives, and imposes political values on the people who bring their cases to mediation. Is it better then the traditional sense? I dont know if it is or not, it is very similar, but much like the rest of China the government sought more control in the everyday affairs of the people, and that is what is happening. A similar situation occurred in India, where there existed a complex system of conflict resolution, but upon the government wanting to modernize the country, most was thrown out. India is also another country that has been colonized, and draws a lot of its government from the British. However, once colonization ended for them, the newly free government had to decide whether or not to revert to the traditional practices of the Jati, or attempt to bring Indian law into the 21st century. Many of the hierarchy of society at the time India was granted freedom were legal professionals from the British days. They wanted to implement a British style of legal system, mainly for their own material gains, as they would be the ones who would be called on as lawyers, and judges. Many people within India opposed this system, seeing it as the culture of the oppressor. They sought to eradicate this system from their country completely. However, as the years of colonization passed the British system gradually became fused with features of the local tradition, especially the local courts system. It became less of an oppressive system and more of a working one. Today the British system has become domesticated to the Indian ways of doing things and a hybrid system has developed. It no longer seems so alien to so many Indians. This example is similar to the Chinese example as the governments of each country are trying to deal with change. In China when the communists took over they only wanted to slightly alter the existing system of mediation, while in India when the British left, the new government only wanted to slightly change the existing system. In both cases, little change was made, only enough to take into consideration the new ideologies of the new government. There is however, a strong backlash against the British system in terms of how it deals with marriage law, but I am choosing not to discuss this issue because it is abstract from the points that I am trying to make. Legal systems also change as they are deemed to be unresponsive, and to out of touch, a is the case in many of the industrialized societies of today. Two examples exist of how changes in the way police are conducting their trade has led to improvements within the society, Japan, and Santa Ana California. The Japanese have made their police much more visible, and eadily available to the public, when compared to the typical American city. This has led to them being much more accepted by the Japanese public than the American police are by our public. They have, for a long time now, abandoned the motorized form of policing in a car, and have instead opted for foot patrols. This brings the actual officer out onto the street, and gets him more involved in the affairs of the people, enabling him to be better capable of stopping trouble before it starts. The whole emphasis on the way the Japanese police has been placed in their continuing efforts to integrate with the community. A system of Kubans has been developed as a place in the community where a small number of officers are stationed. There are several Koban through out Japan, as they are the basis for the policing process. These Koban have various connections with various community groups and organization, further placing the public behind the police. Similarly, in Santa Anna California, a new system has been adopted to better integrate the police force with the people they are trying to serve. During the racially tensed 1960s the police department in the city became very out of touch with the needs of the people in Santa Anna. Police officers began to see themselves as the only form of law, and began to enact their own brand of justice. Public opinion of the department went down, as did the relationship between the department and the public. The city therefore hired a new chief whom implemented several new community oriented policies all aimed at trying to restore the trust of the public. He divided the city into four grids and flooded each with police officers, in an attempt to make the police more accessible to the public, and their concerns. He also hired several new citizens to act as officers, without the official tag of being police officers. They handled many of the mundane tasks of police work, which freed up more officers to be out in the public, exposing themselves, and attempting to prevent crime. Due to the large foreign speaking population, he also hired several citizens who could speak the languages of the people, thus making the department more accessible to those who previously have been closed out due to language barriers. Buildings were set up as a neighborhood control center for the police, but also lent it to many community functions. These buildings, which were very similar to the Koban in Japan, were an attempt to invite the public in and welcome them into the police world. As in Japan, the public was welcomed in and encouraged to make complaints, give information about possible criminal activity, or just sit down and get to know the officers. All of this was done in an attempt to win over the public, and make them feel more comfortable with the police department. It is very similar to the way the Japanese system is set up in that they both work from the grassroots level, using the human resources approach rather than an authoritative system, and the strong desire to integrate with the community, and make them feel more comfortable with the police. As I have demonstrated, changes have taken place in legal systems around the world, some for the better and some not. However, they all end up, in one way or another to reflect the belief that traditional methods are best. Without any inclusion of traditional methods law itself wouldnt be able to be applied to masses of people.

The Concept Of Electromechanical Delay Physical Education Essay

The Concept Of Electromechanical Delay Physical Education Essay Electromechanical delay (EMD) is defined as the time lag between the onset of electrical activity (electromyogram, EMG) and tension development in human muscle (Zhou et al. 1995). It has been suggested that there are several components which are all linked to the generation of force in skeletal muscle. These include the conduction of the action potential along the T-tubule system, the release of sarcoplasmic reticulum, cross-bridge formation between actin and myosin filaments, the subsequent tension development in the contractile component and the stretching of the series elastic component by the contractile component (Cavanagh Komi, 1979). Cavanagh and Komi (1979) suggest that one of the primary causes for the value of EMD is affected by the time necessary to stretch the series elastic component of the muscle to a point when muscle force can be detected. Chan et al (2001) therefore thought the initial length could affect the phase lag and the EMD would be expected to be shorter in a stretched position. Their results showed that the EMD of the Vastus lateralis was shortest at 90 ° of knee extension, compared to 150 ° and 175 °. A study conducted by Norman and Komi (1979) was to test the hypothesis that the rate and change of length of the series elastic component of a muscle was a major contributor to variations in EMD time. They used 10 subjects with an average age of 24.6. They performed a series of horizontal forearm flexion-extensions and extension-flexions at 7 different angular velocities, over two ranges of motion. Two ranges of motion was to determine whether there were muscle length effects on electromech anical delay. Their findings supported the hypothesis that the rate of the muscles series elastic component might be a primary cause for the value of EMD. It was supported primarily for the biceps brachii muscle, where the EMD was shorter in fast eccentric contraction that in any other condition of that muscle. An alternative explanation of a shortened EMD in biceps brachii during eccentric contraction is that in fast stretching, the slow type muscle may be capable of efficient storage of elastic energy and its utilization during the subsequent contraction phase of the stretch shortening cycle (Norman and Komi, 1979). EMD has been found to be influenced by the type of muscle contraction (Cavanagh Komi 1979; Norman Komi 1979) where the biceps EMD were relatively longer in concentric contractions but shorter in eccentric exercise. Norman and Komi (1979) observed different EMD times for the triceps muscles and bicep muscles. The differences in EMD times could be explained by the differences in their fibre structures, with the shorter EMD found in muscles that recruit more fast twitch fibres than those which recruit more slow twitch motor units. It has been discussed that reaction time and electromechanical delay can be enhanced with training (Linford et al. 2006). Linford et al. (2006) conducted a study to determine if neuromuscular training had an effect on reaction time and electromechanical delay of the peroneus longus muscle. A six week training programme was conducted on five males and eight females. The study concluded that the training significantly reduced reaction time, while slightly increasing the electromechanical delay of the muscle. Having a decreased reaction time and electromechanical delay is important for athletes for when the muscles need to activate force as rapidly as possible. Having optimal joint stability is vital during mechanical loading of a joint system, so there is not too much stress being placed on one part of the joint system, decreasing the risk of injury. The results drawn from this study are from the peroneus longus muscle so cannot be directly related to the knee joint. Fatigue It has been suggested that EMD measurement is crucial to have a accurate understanding of the type of central nervous system commands required for the execution of different movements, the role and coordination of muscles in a movement and the apparent anomalies between electromyographical activity (EMG) and body segment motion (Vos et al,1991; Norman Komi, 1979). There have been reports that EMD lengthens after a fatiguing dynamic exercise (Horita, T., Ishiko T. 1987) where as other studies have shown no significant change in EMD after repeated dynamic or isometric contractions (Vos et al. 1991). Zhou, S. (1996) conducted a study to investigate the effects of repeated maximal isometric contractions on electromechanical delay of the quadriceps femoris muscle. Eleven subjects took part, and carried out a one leg fatiguing exercise which was 25 isometric knee extension. Each lasted 8 seconds followed by a 2 second recovery period. His results showed a significant elongation in EMD. This is in contrast to Vos et al. (1991) who did not find any significant effect on EMD after a fatigue trial was carried out on the same muscle group. The different findings could be down to the different exercise protocols or methods used to determine EMD. However in the study by Vos (1991), participants carried out the fatigue trial with a force of 50% MVC, which may be the reason for no significant effect on EMD. Whereas Zhous (1996) participants carried out maximal voluntary contraction. This could mean that the participants in the study by Vos (1991) may not be fully fatigued. Minshull et al (2007) conducted a study which determined what effects an acute bout of maximal intensity static fatiguing exercise would have on voluntary and magnetically-evoked EMD in the knee flexors of males and females. Seven men and nine women participated in this study, taking part in two treatment conditions. One being an intervention condition, where the participants performed a fatigue trial of 30 second maximal static fatiguing exercise of the knee flexors. The second condition was a control, consisting of no exercise. The results showed that in both intervention and control group, males EMD performance was maintained. However the fatiguing trial elicited a 19.5% impairment in EMD performance compared to baseline levels in females. This comes as another finding of fatigue on EMD as Zhou (1996) find a overall elongated EMD, not just specifically in females. This could be down to the different fatiguing protocols, the study by Minshull (2007) may have fatigued the participants more with a longer constant fatiguing exercise. These results may differ because of participant variation. Chan et al (2001) examined the effects of knee joint angles and fatigue on neuromuscular performance. Fatiguing exercise caused a significant lengthening of the EMD of the vastus lateralis and medialis at 90 ° and 150 ° of knee extension. Interestingly the fatiguing protocol did not induce any significant lengthening of the EMD at 175 ° knee extension. This shows that knee joint position affects the neuromuscular fatigue of the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis. b) Temperature Cryotherapy has long been used to treat musculoskeletal soreness, with the expectation that decreased tissue temperature will result in constriction of local blood vessels thus diminishing inflammatory response and oedema associated with musculoskeletal trauma (Sellwood et al. 2009). But what effect will crotherapy and heating muscles have on neuromuscular performance. Many studies have been conducted to examine the effects of manipulating a muscles temperature on fatigue, neuromuscular performance, delayed onset of muscle soreness and metabolic responses (Zhou et al. 1998; Nosaka et al. 2004; Bailey et al. 2007; Dae et al. 1997.) Zhou et al (1998) said that a significant increase in body temperature usually accompanies strenuous exercise. With this exercise, the muscle contractile and elastic properties would be influence due to such a change, which could have an effect on EMD values. Zhou et al (1998) conducted a study which measured Peak force, EMD values and muscle temperature before and after an intermittent isometric maximal voluntary contraction exercise, and investigated the influence of passively changed muscle temperature on EMD and peak force. The muscle temperature was manipulated by placing a plastic bag filled with hot water or cold water over the front thigh area with a intramuscular needle thermistor measuring muscle temperature.. T he EMD was measured at 38, 36, 34, 32 and 30 °C. They found that when the muscle temperature was 2.5 °C higher than the resting level, the EMD increased by approximately 5ms. They also found that EMD was increased when muscle temperatures was either higher or lower than 36 °C. There was a trend found that showed the peak force decreased at a low temperature, however a repeated measures ANOVA did not reveal a significant difference of temperature on peak force. This supports a study conducted by Thornley, Maxwell Cheung (2003) who examined the effects of local tissue temperatures on peak torque and muscular endurance during isometric knee extension. They found temperature has no effect on peak torque, although there was a tendency to decrease when cooled, but was found non significant. However this study did not use a intramuscular needle thermistor, they only measured the skins temperature. Their results may have differed if they used a needle thermometer, as they used heat packs of 55 °C, 34 °C, 22 °C and -17 °C, it would be interesting to see what the muscle temperatures were, to add to the knowledge to show to what extent muscle temperature has on peak force. Nosaka et al (2004) found no change in peak eccentric force of the forearm flexors, within a microwave treatment (muscle temperature increase of 3 °C (37.5 °C)) and a icing treatment (muscle temperature decrease of 7 °C (26.4 °C)). This cannot be related to the knee flexor muscles. Skurvydas et al (2006) conducted a study which assessed the effect of leg immersion in cold water after stretch shortening exercise (SSE) on the indirect indicators of exercise induced muscle damage. The participants muscle contractile properties were recorded before the SSE, then at 4 h, 8h, 24h and 48hours post exercise. There was a control group and a cold group. In the cold group the leg was immersed in cold water (15  ± 1 °C) immediately after SSE and at 4h, 8h and 24h. The leg was immersed twice for each test for 15 minutes with an interval of 10 minutes. They found that cold water immersion reduced muscle stiffness and the amount of post exercise damage after strenuous eccentric exercise, but it had no effect on muscle force. Their results also showed that the leg muscles that had been subject to cold water immersion after SSE, significantly increased the recovery speed of maximal voluntary contraction force (MVCF). MVCF had recovered within 24 hours post SSE. However Esto n and Peters (1999) observed no quick recovery of the maximal voluntary contraction force after cold water immersion. It took 48h to 72 hours post cold water immersion for their subjects MVCF to return to baseline values. This could be because in the study by Skurvydas et al (2006) cooling of the musculature was concentrated up to 24 hours, where as Eston and Peters (1999) applied cooling treatment immediately post exercise and every twelve hours there after, for a duration of three days. Another reason for the differences could be that muscle damage was applied to the leg muscles in the study by Skurvydas et al (2006) and to the elbow flexor muscles in Eston and Peters (1999) study. In contrast, Skurvydas et al (2008) looked at leg immersion in warm water before SSE on the indirect markers of exercise induced muscle damage. The participants muscle contractile properties were recorded, then was sat in a 44 °C water bath for 45 minutes in waist high water. The contractile properties were then recorded again and SSE took place. Contractile properties of the participant were taken at 1h, 4h, 8h, 24h, 48h and 72 hours post SSE. They found that muscle pre warming did not cause any changes in MVCF, and it took over 72 hours for MVCF to recover to pre exercise level. The differences in the findings of these two studies may be purely be down to one study uses hot water, and one uses cold. But in the study using cold water, the participant is immersed in the water immediately after SSE and at 4h, 8h and 24 hours after SSE. But in the heat study the participants were only immersed in the water before the SSE. If the same protocol for immersion was used in the warm water study, a difference may be seen in the recovery of MVCF. A study should be conducted using the same immersion type in cold and warm water conditions, therefore showing more accurate comparisons of what effects different temperatures have on MVCF. Bailey et al (2007) examined the influence of cold water immersion after prolonged intermittent whole body exercise. Twenty men were subjects in this study who were randomly assigned to a cryotherapy or control group. Each participants maximal voluntary isometric contraction of the knee extensors and flexors were recorded using an isokinetic dynamometer pre, immediately after, 1 h, 24 h, 48 h and 168 hours post exercise. Subjects completed an intermittent shuttle test and immediately after the cryotherapy group immersed their lower limbs in a cold water bath (10 °C) for 10 minutes. After the cold bath or rest, subjects completed two maximal isometric repetitions of the dominant limb for 5 seconds for extension and flexion. The results showed that exercise resulted in a reduction of knee flexion peak torque at 24 and 48hours in the cryotherapy group. The control group experienced an even bigger detrimental effect in PF at 24 and 48 hours post exercise. This shows that cold water imm ersion improved recovery of maximal voluntary contraction of the knee flexors 24 48 hours post exercise. This supports the findings from Skurvydas et al (2006) suggesting that cooling the leg muscles increases recovery time of MVCF. However it takes seven days for the MVCF to return to pre exercise values. This is vastly different result compared to Skurvydas et al (2006) and Eston and Peters (1999). This may be because the exercise Bailey et al (2007) uses, is a more dynamic whole body exercise (intermittent shuttle run) as appose to a stretch shortening exercise and a bout of eccentric exercise on the elbow flexors (Skurvydas et al 2006; Eston and Peters 1999). As well as artificially changing participants body temperature or muscle temperature with water immersion or ice / heat packs, studies have examined the effects of passively changing bodies temperature and the effect it has on neuromuscular performance. Morrison, S., Sleivert, G. G., and Cheung, S. (2004) determined if passive hyperthermia impairs maximal voluntary isometric contraction and voluntary activation. Participants quadriceps femoris muscle group was measured for neuromuscular performance, then a submaximal running pace, which was maintained for 20 30 minutes took place in an environmental chamber with an ambient air temperature of ~35 °C. At intervals of 0.5 °C, from 37.5 to 39.5 °C of core temperature, subjects performed a 10 second maximal isometric knee extension, and then during skin cooling back down from 39.5 to 37.5 °C of core temperature Results showed that MVC was significantly influenced by passive heating and decreased significantly to the end of passiv e heating. When the skin cooling was introduced there was no significant change in MVC until the end of the protocol when body core temperature had returned to normal. This shows the primary thermal input causing hyperthermia induced fatigue, when the skin was rapidly cooled by 8 °C and core temperature held stable at 39.5 °C, there was no recovery of MVC. Ranatunga et al (1987) claims isometric force properties are generally not strongly affected by lowering muscle temperature to ~25 °C. Drinkwater and Behm (2007) looked at the effects of 22 °C muscle temperature on voluntary and evoked muscle properties during and after high intensity exercise. Participants performed a series of isometric maximum voluntary contractions of the plantar flexors pre, 1, 5 and 10 minutes after fatigue in both hypothermic and normothermic conditions. In the hypothermic condition, a refrigerating pump circling cold (-3 °C) liquid through a plastic pump was wrapped around the participants leg. Results from the normothermic condition showed a moderate decline in maximal voluntary contraction, but did not show a significant difference between 1 and 5 minutes. Maximal voluntary contraction experienced a significant decrease 1 minute after fatigue in the hypothermic condition, -12%, compared to a -15% in the normothermic condition. There was no significant difference in the recovery of MVC. This supports the findings from Morrison et al (2004) who found no recovery in MVC in a hyperthermic condition. 3 METHOD a) Participants Eleven males {21.4 ( ±1.8) years; 183.5 ( ±6.8) cm; 81.8 ( ±10.2) kg} gave their informed consent to take part in the study, and completed a health screen questionnaire. They each knew that they could cease participation at any given time without providing a reason. Participants had been told not to take part in any strenuous physical exercise 24 hours prior to the experiment taking place. Nottingham Trent University Ethics Committee gave ethical approval. b) Experimental Design Following one habituation session, participants were secured in a supine position in a custom built dynamometer (Gleeson et al. 1995). The experimental design comprised of three treatment conditions: (1) An ice condition that required participants to sit in an ice bath for 10 minutes; (2) a heating condition which required participants to sit in a hot bath for 10 minutes; (3) a control condition were the participant sat on a bench for 10 minutes. The conditions were presented in a random order and separated by at least three days, to prevent any carry over effects. Participants neuromuscular performance (peak force, electromechanical delay) was measured prior to and immediately after each condition, and after a fatigue trial which was performed within each condition. Participants were verbally encouraged during the periods of maximal muscle activation. c) Participant and dynamometer orientation Electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded from the vastus lateralis of the participants dominant leg during maximal contractions. A standardised skin preparation technique was used (Minshull et al.2007) which included shaving of the area, light abrasion with sand paper and alcohol wiped. This yielded inter-electrode impedance of less than 5 kÃŽÂ ©. The mid belly of the vastus lateralis was palpated and two Bipolar surface electrodes (silver-silver, self adhesive, 10 mm diameter) were applied having a 3cm inter-electrode distance, with a reference electrode placed laterally and equidistant to the recording electrodes. The positions of the electrodes were marked on the leg by ink dots and also on a plastic sheet used to identify the exact positions for the electrodes in each test during the experimental period. Electrodes were re placed on the chosen leg once it had been fully immersed in the hot or cold conditions to prevent malfunctioning electrodes. The correct wires were the n attached from the computer onto the electrodes. Participants were strapped in a supine position on the dynamometer using shoulder belts and with their dominant knee flexed passively at 25 ° (0.44 rad) which was held for the duration of the testing. This knee flexion angle is associated with the greatest mechanical strain on key ligaments (Beynnon and Johnson 1996). The hip extension angle was 60 ° and both angles were checked using a goniometer. The lever arm of the dynamometer was moved into the correct position and was attached to the participants with padded ankle cuffs and adjustable strapping. All other body parts were securely fastened with the appropriate straps. Prior to testing, participants were asked to perform a series of warm up muscle activations, consisting of 1x 25, 50, 75 and 95% of subjectively judged maximal voluntary muscle activation (MVMA). Three 100% MVMA were then performed and recorded. Each contraction was held for 3 seconds, with a 10 second rest between each. d) Water bathing The cooling condition required the participants dominant leg to be fully immersed in a cold water bath at 5  ± 1 ° for 10 minutes. The heating condition required the participants leg to be fully immersed in 45  ± 1 ° water for 10 minutes. The temperature of each bath was continually measured using a thermometer, and adjusted accordingly with either added ice, or hot water to keep the water temperature consistent. The water in the bath came up to the participants iliac crest, making sure the whole of the vastus lateralis was immersed. In the control trial, the participant sat on a bench in the same position they would if they were in the bath. e) Fatigue Trial Once the participants exit the ice, heat bath or bench they are strapped in to the dynamometer and electrodes re placed. Three more 100% MVMA were carried out and recorded, lasting 3 seconds each with a 10 second rest between. A fatigue trial was performed, which consisted of a 30 second MVMA of the knee musculature. Finally three more 100% MVMA were carried out. f) Maximal volitional muscle activation Before each condition took place, the participant was required to have full musculature relaxation prior to the test. The experimenter gave a verbal indication of are you ready and within 3 seconds, the signal for the participant to extend their knee as forcefully as possible against the immovable restraint was GO. The muscle activation lasted for 3 seconds. Verbal encouragement was given when the participant was completing the activation so maximal contraction was achieved. A verbal signal being relax was the cue for the subject to withdraw from the force as rapidly as possible. g) Peak Force Peak force was defined as the highest value that the participants obtained during each of the three attempts. The mean of these maximal contractions was used as the value for peak force. h) Electromechanical Delay Electromyography activity was recorded from the vastus lateralis during maximal volitional contractions using bipolar surface electrodes. The onset of electrical activity was defined as the first point at which electrical signals consistently exceeded the 95% confidence limits of the isoelectric line and with the background electrical noise (Minshull et al. 2007). Electromechanical delay (EMD) was defined as the time delay between the onset of electrical activity and the onset of muscle force above 1N. The mean EMD of the three trials within each condition was recorded. i) Statistical data The results collected from the voluntary muscle activations showed the neuromuscular performance of the vastus lateralis. All data was presented as a group mean  ± standard deviation. A fully repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyse time (pre intervention, post intervention, post fatigue) each index of performance (peak force, EMD) under three separate conditions (ice, heat, control). Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) v.15.0. was used to analyse the data. Statistical significance was accepted at pà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤0.05. 4 RESULTS a) Peak Force

Porphyria’s Lover and My Last Duchess Essay -- Robert Browning, Poem,

The two poems that I am comparing are Porphyria’s Lover and My Last Duchess, both early nineteenth century dramatic monologues by Robert Browning. Compare the three dramatic monologues you have studied on the way in which the characters reveal their true nature through what they say. The two poems that I am comparing are Porphyria’s Lover and My Last Duchess, both early nineteenth century dramatic monologues by Robert Browning. A dramatic monologue is a poem in which only one person speaks, but the presence of another person is usually felt. The narrator reveals a great deal about himself without any apparent intention of doing so. In both of these dramatic monologues, it appears that the speaker has murdered their mistress and is reflecting upon their actions while contemplating the image of their lover’s beautiful face. Both are selfish men who were jealous of their victims. The two speakers came from very different backgrounds, one a rich and powerful Duke, the other a low-born worker living in rural simplicity. Porphyria’s Lover is a love story told in the words of a simple man obsessed by his love for a woman of noble birth. The first five lines describe the weather on a miserable, wet evening. This is Browning’s use of pathetic fallacy, giving the works of nature human feelings – the feelings of the speaker. ====================================================================== â€Å"The sullen wind was soon awake, It tore the elm tops down for spite, And its worse to vex the lake:† The speaker is longing for his lover and feeling miserable but then she arrives. The whole mood changes from darkness and cold, to warmth and light. His mood change is shown by â€Å"she shut the cold out†, both ... ... saw the young Duchess, a work of art, something that he owned and could show off, and something that he could also discard when it no longer pleased him. The speaker in Porphyria’s Lover, reveals himself to be someone who speaks his heart and does not ‘fence around’ the truth like the Duke. Although the Duke says he does not have skilled speech, its is obvious that his diction is carefully chosen through out. He is almost inviting the listener to disagree with him. â€Å"Even had you the skill In speech – (which I have not)† The speaker in Porphyria’s Lover uses a much simpler diction, as he will not have been as well educated as the Duke. Both men are murderers, one because of love, which he feels, could never be accepted because of the social divide, the other as a result of jealousy, arrogance and spite, again occasioned by the difference in class.

Free College Essays - The Role Model in Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

Huckleberry Finn: His Role Model Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is written from the view point of the boy Huckleberry Finn. He tells about the adventures he is having on the Mississippi River with a runaway slave, whose name is Jim. It becomes apparent early in the book that there are a couple of people who play major roles in Huck's life. One is Jim and the other is Tom Sawyer, the person Huck wishes he could be like. Tom Sawyer is a leader to Huck from the very beginning of the book, when Huck is living with the Widow Douglas. She is raising Huck because his father is a drunk and is not in the area. Huck is doing fine living with the Widow Douglas for awhile, but he soon tires of her way of life. Huck does not like having to stay clean all the time and having to wear neat clothes. He also doesn't appreciate her attempting to civilize him, so he puts on his old rags and leaves. Tom Sawyer is the one who is able to convince Huck to come back to the widow and "be respectable" (p. 1). Huck wants to be a part of Tom's gang, so he agrees to go back. It takes a certain type of person to make Huck willing to go home because it is a lifestyle he really doesn't like. Tom has that kind of control over Huck's decisions. Another reason that Huck looks up to Tom as a role model is that Huck feels Tom is more intelligent than himself. Huck is amazed by how brilliant Tom is. "What a head for just a boy to have! If I had Tom Sawyer's head I wouldn't trade it off to be a duke, nor mate of a steamboat, nor clown in a circus, nor nothing I can think of" (p. 236). It isn't simply that Tom is smarter. It is that Tom often makes Huck feel he isn't as smart. One example is when the two boys are trying to free Jim. Huck doesn't understand why they have to do things the hard way. That is when Tom says, "Oh, shucks, Huck Finn, if I was as ignorant as you I'd keep still" (p. 243). Tom also says, "Why, hain't you ever read any books at all?" (p. 242). It is true that Tom has more schooling than Huck, and this also plays a role into Huck's belief that Tom is smarter.

Grapes of Wrath and Its a Wonderful Life :: Economy Great Depression Essays

Grapes of Wrath and It's a Wonderful Life Following the relatively prosperous era nicknamed the "Roaring Twenties" came the Great Depression. Unemployment skyrocketed and good times were hard to be found. In the movie "It's a Wonderful Life" - we see the transformation from stability to utter chaos. With World War I freshly over, there was joy and celebration to welcome American 'boys' coming back home. Huge technological improvements and scientific breakthroughs paved the way for larger, more stable and profitable financial markets. Fast and easy money was too be made by playing the booming stock market - many lay men took advantage of these opportunities without having a complete understanding of what exactly they were doing. This inevitably led to the crash that sent America and the world into the Great Depression. In the movie - we see the first stages of the panic that spread throughout the country. People got scared and ran to the bank to take out their life-savings. What they did not understand was that no bank carries all its customers money at the same time. Profits are made off loans (which come from money kept in the bank by customers) with interest rates. This is what George Bailey tries to explain to the people of Bedford Falls, when they come to take their life-savings out of Baileys Building and Loans. However, not everyone was satisfied with George Bailey's explanation. They much preferred to have hard cash on them, which led some to turn to Mr. Potter (the stereotypical evil character who represents all that is bad), who offered fifty cents for every dollar. This of course allowed Potter to make huge profits out of other peoples loss. George's institution was unable to match Potter, not only because he believed it was unethical, but also because they were not a big and strong enough institution. Realizing this, Potter tried numerous times during the course of the movie to shut down the Buildings and Loans or take it over - to no avail. It was his aim to capture a monopolistic market over Bedford Falls that would allow him to charge any rates he wanted and thereby ensure himself a sufficiently large profit. It would also mean the end of a free market in Bedford Falls. A likely byproduct of a monopoly is feudalism, which could have arisen, given half a chance. It was the Bailey bank that always stood in the way of this happening.

Thinking in Early Adulthood-Post formal Stage

From the standpoint of developmental psychology, there have been several different sets of theories regarding the process of thinking in early adulthood. While the majority of sources hold consensus that the development of thought processes within human beings is complete in adolescence, there are also theories that a stage of cognitive development lies beyond the conventional wisdom to include what is commonly referred to as a post formal stage, which, simply put, involves the human mind processing thought beyond logic and being able to critically analyze, evaluate various options, and choose an option based upon analysis (Arack).In this essay, the question of whether or not the post formal stage exists will be answered. To begin, an irony occurred to the researcher in the consideration of the answer to this question itself, and that irony is the fact that in order to be able to answer the question, the ability to analyze various pieces of information on their merit and develop an o pinion/answer to this question seems to indicate the existence of post formal stages in itself.If everything past adolescence was acted upon based on what was formed in the mind up to the time of adolescence, it is doubtful that this essay would have much substance at all. Going beyond the theoretical, however, the researcher will now justify the assertion that post formal exists. The very essence of the human experience indicates that post formal is something that plays a vital role in human development, from birth to adulthood and into old age.This is evidenced by the fact that many people find themselves changing their opinions on a virtually endless number of topics and situations as their life experience increases, outwardly defeating the idea that we are on a sort of psychological auto-pilot once adulthood approaches and that the mind at that point is merely a clearinghouse for thoughts, with no ability to change thought processes.Another key consideration and evidence of post formal existence are the many examples of people who learn skills and pursue additional education late in life, which would be impossible if the mind were not able to embrace new ideas and information, referred to by those who are advocates of the existence of post formal as â€Å"shifting gears† (Arack). In closing, both from the standpoints of example and academic research, there is sufficient evidence to support the existence of post formal stages. While many of the complexities of the human mind may never be understood, this seems to be something that can be objectively proven.